Roman Art

Roman Art (c.500 BCE - 500 CE)

For several centuries Ancient Rome was the most powerful nation on earth, excelling all others at military organization and warfare, engineering, and architecture. Its unique cultural achievements include the invention of the dome and the groin vault, the development of concrete and a European-wide network of roads and bridges. Despite this, Roman sculptors and painters produced only a limited amount of outstanding original fine art, preferring instead to recycle designs from Greek art, which they revered as far superior to their own. Indeed, many types of art practised by the Romans - including, sculpture (bronze and marble statuary, sarcophagi), fine art painting (murals, portraiture, vase-painting), and decorative art (including metalwork, mosaics, jewellery, ivory carving) had already been fully mastered by Ancient Greek artists. Not surprisingly, therefore, while numerous Greek sculptors (like Phidias, Kresilas, Myron, Polykleitos, Callimachus, Skopas, Lysippos, Praxiteles, and Leochares, Phyromachos) and painters (like Apollodorus, Zeuxis of Heraclea, Agatharchos, Parrhasius, Apelles of Kos, Antiphilus, Euphranor of Corinth) were accorded great respect throughout the Hellenistic world, most Roman artists were regarded as no more than skilled tradesmen and have remained anonymous.


Of course it is wrong to say that Roman art was devoid of innovation: its urban architecture was ground-breaking, as was its landscape painting and portrait busts. Nor is it true that Roman artists produced no great masterpieces - witness the extraordinary relief sculpture on monuments like Ara Pacis Augustae and Trajan's Column. But on the whole, we can say that Roman art was predominantly derivative and, above all, utilitarian. It served a purpose, a higher good: the dissemination of Roman values along with a respect for Roman power. As it transpired, classical Roman art has been immensely influential on many subsequent cultures, through revivalist movements like Neoclassical architecture, which have shaped much European and American architecture, as exemplified by the US Capitol Building The lesser-known Classical Revival in modern art (1900-30) led to a return to figure painting as well as new abstract movements like Cubism.

Roman Potrait Bust

Sculpture on Roman buildings and altars could be merely decorative or have a more political purpose. For example, on triumphal arches the architectural sculpture captured in detail key campaign events, which reinforced the message that the emperor was a victorious and civilizing agent across the known world. A typical example is the Arch of Constantine in Rome (c. 315 CE) which also shows defeated and enslaved 'barbarians' to ram home the message of Rome’s superiority. Such a portrayal of real people and specific historical figures in architectural sculpture is in marked contrast to Greek sculpture where great military victories were usually presented in metaphor, using figures from Greek mythology like amazons and centaurs such as on the Parthenon. Altars could also be used to present important individuals in a favourable light. The most famous altar of all is the Ara Pacis of Augustus (completed 9 BCE) in Rome, a huge block of masonry which depicts spectators and participants at a religious procession. It seems as though the figures have been captured in a single moment as in a photograph, a child pulls on a toga, Augustus’ sister tells two chatterers to be silent, and so on.


Roman Wall Paintings

Fresco, Livia's Villa, Rome

The interiors of Roman buildings of all description were very frequently sumptuously decorated using bold colours and designs. Wall paintings, fresco, and the use of stucco to create relief effects were all commonly used by the 1st century BCE in public buildings, private homes, temples, tombs, and even military structures across the Roman world. Designs could range from intricate realistic detail to highly impressionistic renderings which frequently covered all of the available wall space including the ceiling.
Roman wall painters (or perhaps their clients) preferred natural earth colours such as darker shades of reds, yellows, and browns. Blue and black pigments were also popular for plainer designs, but evidence from a Pompeii paint shop illustrates that a wide range of colour shades was available. Subjects could include portraits, scenes from mythology, architecture using trompe-l’oeil, flora, fauna, and even entire gardens, landscapes and townscapes to create spectacular 360° panoramas which transported the viewer from the confines of a small room to the limitless world of the painter’s imagination. An outstanding example is the 1st century BCE House of Livia on the Palatine hill in Rome which includes a 360° panorama of an impressionistically rendered garden. The scene runs around one room and completely ignores the corners. Another splendid example is the 1st century CE private villa known as the House of the Vettii in Pompeii.

As the art form developed, larger-scale single scenes which presented larger-than-life figures became more common. By the 3rd century CE one of the best sources of wall painting comes from Christian catacombs where scenes were painted from both the Old and New Testament.

Early Buddhist Art

What is Buddhist Art?

Buddhist art includes media which depict Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other entities; notable practitioners and historical figures; narrative scenes from the lives of all of these; mandalas and other graphic aids to practice; as well as physical objects associated with Buddhist practice (dorjes, bells, clothing, etc.).

Music, chanting, dramatic forms, and poetry can also be considered Buddhist art.

The earliest known instances of material objects of worship for Buddhists are relics of the Buddha and other holy figures, as well objects symbolic of relics (e.g., stupas).

An early text describes three categories of relics:

(1) Saririka: physical relics of the Buddha;
(2) Uddesika: religious symbols including the Buddha image, stupas, dharmacakra (wheel of the law), “implying the places of actions and objects of use as relics of a Buddha”;
(3) Paribhogika: personal articles used by the Buddha.

Relics are always closely associated with the life story of the historical Buddha (c.f., John S. Strong, Relics of the Buddha), and their preservation/worship is intended to encourage religious practice.

The earliest recovered examples of art associated with Buddhism are aniconic, referring to their symbolic rather than representational quality, and indicate a didactic intention. Scholars differ on whether such symbols represent the Buddha himself, or merely allude to his life. The actual bodhi tree, the site of enlightenment, is presented in as substitute for the Buddha himself. “The Kalingabodhi jataka recounts the frustration of the people of Sravasti who, one day, find they have nobody to venerate when they go to the Jetavana and find the Buddha “out,” gone off on a trip. To remedy this situation, upon his return the Buddha allows Ananda to plant a bodhi tree in front of the Jetavana […] and serves as a substitute focus for people’s devotions, whenever the Buddha is not in residence.” (Relics of the Buddha, p. 153).

Rather than depict the historical Buddha (Shakyamuni), images symbolic of his life (particularly of the points in his biography which point to his eventual enlightenment), were employed, often in narrative scenes. Other common aniconic images include: footprints, an empty throne. The images carved into the gates at Sanchi and Barihut are intended to offer stories uplifting to contemporary readers, and evidence the incorporation of existing traditions and iconography from India and the surrounding regions. The well-known images of the footsteps of the Buddha underscore his physical presence in the world (and thus the capacity for any living being to pursue and attain enlightenment), as well as illustrating the marks of the dharmacakra, describing of the identity of the Buddha. (c.f., Susan L. Huntington: “Early Buddhist art and the theory of aniconism”, Art Journal, Winter 1990.)

Buddhist art has grown organically within cultures in which the religion flourished, incorporating iconography and styles. Thus, the earliest Buddhist art partakes of symbols and styles from pre-existing Hindu (e.g., yogic postures) and East Roman art (figures set in architraves), with constant reference to the life story of the Buddha. Scholars have sought a cause for the introduction of human figures in Buddhist art around the 1st century BCE from the cultures of the era. Some posit this emergence of anthropomorphic imagery to the lingering influence of Graeco-Roman culture in Gandhara (present-day Pakistan), while others give the credit to the north-central Indian empire of Mathura. These arguments are well-summarized in The Buddha image: its origin and development, Yuvraj Krishan, and see also Karel Werner, p. 68ff. in Venerated Objects and Symbols of Early Buddhism, edited by Peter Harvey.


Iconic phase (1st century CE – present)


Greco-Buddhist head of Buddha, stucco, Hadda Afghanistan, 1st-2nd century C.E.
Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to emerge from the first century C.E. in northern India. During the second to first century B.C.E., sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha’s life and teachings. These took the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the decoration of stupas. The two main centers of creation have been identified as Gandhara in today’s Punjab, in Pakistan, and the region of Mathura, in central northern India.

The art of Gandhara benefited from centuries of interaction with Greek culture since the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.E. and the subsequent establishment of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms, leading to the development of Greco-Buddhist art. Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has been suggested that the concept of the “man-god” was essentially inspired by Greek mythological culture. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.

The art of Mathura tends to be based on a strong Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the later representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat, etc.


Gandhara





Footprint of the Buddha


Mathura and Gandhara also strongly influenced each other. During their artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. It is still a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha was essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara through the Greco-Buddhist syncretism.

Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, first century C.E.
This iconic art was characterized from the start by a realistic idealism, combining realistic human features, proportions, attitudes and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and serenity reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art.

Hellenistic & Greek Art

The Hellenistic Age marks the transformation of Greek society from the localized and introverted city-states to an open, cosmopolitan, and at times exuberant culture that permeated the entire eastern Mediterranean, and Southwest Asia. While the Hellenistic world incorporated a number of different people, Greek thinking, mores, and way of life dominated the public affairs of the time. All aspects of culture took a Greek hue, with the Greek language being established as the official language of the Hellenistic world. The art and literature of the era were transformed accordingly. Instead of the previous preoccupation with the Ideal, Hellenistic art focused on the Real. Depictions of man in both art and literature revolved around exuberant, and often amusing themes that for the most part explored the daily life and the emotional world of humans, gods, and heroes alike.

The autonomy of individual cities of the Classical era gave way to the will of the large kingdoms that were led by one ruler. As Alexander left no apparent heir, his generals controlled the empire. They fought common enemies and against each other as they attempted to establish their power, and eventually, three major kingdoms emerged through the strife that followed the death of Alexander in 323 BCE and persisted for the most part over the next three hundred years.


Hellenistic Period

Alexander the Great’s Legacy



One of the biggest things that set this time period apart from the rest of the periods in Ancient Greece was the impact that Alexander the Great had on the Greeks. For example, Alexander considerably expanded Greece’s borders as he headed towards the East. This caused waves of Greeks to leave their original homelands and settle in areas further East, thus expanding his empire by doing more than just conquering the land. Many of those who emigrated were young and ambitions and were motivated to spread the Greek influence to places throughout the world. Evidence of this can still be felt today. Once Alexander the Great passed away, this also did a lot to impact the people, who struggled to find their way after his death. The Hellenistic Period technically began after he died.



Rise of the Roman Empire












Once Alexander the Great passed away, Greece became vulnerable. In many ways, this single event is what set the town for the Hellenistic Period. While Alexander the Great’s time represented a period of remarkable growth for the Greek people, when he died, it further changed the way Ancient Greece was. The Greek city-states were also still in place, many of which were thriving. However, in 192 B.C. war finally broke out when Rome went to war with the Greek Ruler Antiochus. Rome attacked with a 10,000 man army, and many looked at Antiochus as someone who cold save them from Roman rule. After a long period of political instability, wars, and Roman influence, Greece finally became part of the Roman Empire in 27 B.C.

The Hellenistic Period is looked at as the final period of Ancient Greece because after that, Greece had been annexed to the Roman Empire.

Chinese Art

Chinese art traditions are the oldest continuous art traditions in the world. Early so-called "stone age art" in China, consisting mostly of simple pottery and sculptures, dates back to 10,000 B.C.E.. This early period was followed by a series of dynasties, most of which lasted several hundred years. Through dynastic changes, political collapses, Mongol and Manchurian invasions, wars, and famines, Chinese artistic traditions were preserved by scholars and nobles and adapted by each successive dynasty. The art of each dynasty can be distinguished by its unique characteristics and developments.

Historical development to 221 B.C.E.
Neolithic pottery












Black eggshell pottery of the Longshan culture (c. 3000–2000 B.C.E.)


Early forms of art in China are found in the Neolithic Yangshao culture (Chinese: 仰韶文化; pinyin: Yǎngsháo Wénhuà), which dates back to the sixth millennium B.C.E. Archeological findings such as those at the Banpo have revealed that the Yangshao made pottery; early ceramics were unpainted and most often ornamented by with marks made by pressing cords into the wet clay. The first pictorial decorations were fish and human faces, which eventually evolved into symmetrical-geometric abstract designs, some painted.

The most distinctive feature of Yangshao culture was the extensive use of painted pottery, especially human facial, animal, and geometric designs. Unlike the later Longshan culture, the Yangshao culture did not use pottery wheels in pottery making. According to archaeologists, Yangshao society was based around matriarchal clans. Excavations have found that children were buried in painted pottery jars.




Jade culture






Jade bi from the Liangzhu culture. The ritual object is a symbol of wealth and military power.






Jade bi from the Liangzhu culture. The ritual object is a symbol of wealth and military power.
Tools such as hammer heads, ax heads and knives were made of jade nephrite during the Neolithic period (c. 12,000 – c. 2,000 B.C.E.). The Liangzhu culture, the last Neolithic jade culture in the Yangtze River delta, lasted for a period of about 1300 years from 3400 - 2250 B.C.E. The jade from this culture is characterized by finely worked, large ritual jades such as Cong cylinders, Bi discs, Yue axes, pendants and decorations in the form of chiseled open-work plaques, plates and representations of small birds, turtles and fish. Liangzhu jade has a white, milky bone-like aspect due to its origin as Tremolite rock and the influence of water-based fluids at the burial sites.

Egyptian Art

·         Art is an essential aspect of any civilization. Once the basic human needs have been taken care of such as food, shelter, some form of community law, and a religious belief, cultures begin producing artwork.

·         Process began in the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) through images of animals, human beings, and supernatural figures inscribed on rock walls

·         Egyptian society was based on the concept of harmony known as ma'at which had come into being at the dawn of creation and sustained the universe.

·         All Egyptian art is based on perfect balance because it reflects the ideal world of the gods.

·         Tomb paintings, temple tableaus, home and palace gardens all were created so that their form suited an important function and, in many cases, this function was a reminder of the eternal nature of life and the value of personal 

         Tutankhamun which shows the pharaoh with his wife Ankhsenamun on the right. c. 1327 BCE, National Museum, Cairo.

         On the front, Narmer is associated with the divine strength of the bull (possibly the ApisBull) and is seen wearing the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt in a triumphal procession. 

           Below,two men wrestle with entwined beasts which are often interpreted as representing Upper and Lower Egypt The reverse side shows the king's victory over his enemies while the gods look on approvingly. All these scenes are carved in low-raised relief with incredible skill.