Buddhist art includes media which depict Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other entities; notable practitioners and historical figures; narrative scenes from the lives of all of these; mandalas and other graphic aids to practice; as well as physical objects associated with Buddhist practice (dorjes, bells, clothing, etc.).
Music, chanting, dramatic forms, and poetry can also be considered Buddhist art.
The earliest known instances of material objects of worship for Buddhists are relics of the Buddha and other holy figures, as well objects symbolic of relics (e.g., stupas).
An early text describes three categories of relics:
(1) Saririka: physical relics of the Buddha;
(2) Uddesika: religious symbols including the Buddha image, stupas, dharmacakra (wheel of the law), “implying the places of actions and objects of use as relics of a Buddha”;
(3) Paribhogika: personal articles used by the Buddha.
Relics are always closely associated with the life story of the historical Buddha (c.f., John S. Strong, Relics of the Buddha), and their preservation/worship is intended to encourage religious practice.
The earliest recovered examples of art associated with Buddhism are aniconic, referring to their symbolic rather than representational quality, and indicate a didactic intention. Scholars differ on whether such symbols represent the Buddha himself, or merely allude to his life. The actual bodhi tree, the site of enlightenment, is presented in as substitute for the Buddha himself. “The Kalingabodhi jataka recounts the frustration of the people of Sravasti who, one day, find they have nobody to venerate when they go to the Jetavana and find the Buddha “out,” gone off on a trip. To remedy this situation, upon his return the Buddha allows Ananda to plant a bodhi tree in front of the Jetavana […] and serves as a substitute focus for people’s devotions, whenever the Buddha is not in residence.” (Relics of the Buddha, p. 153).
Rather than depict the historical Buddha (Shakyamuni), images symbolic of his life (particularly of the points in his biography which point to his eventual enlightenment), were employed, often in narrative scenes. Other common aniconic images include: footprints, an empty throne. The images carved into the gates at Sanchi and Barihut are intended to offer stories uplifting to contemporary readers, and evidence the incorporation of existing traditions and iconography from India and the surrounding regions. The well-known images of the footsteps of the Buddha underscore his physical presence in the world (and thus the capacity for any living being to pursue and attain enlightenment), as well as illustrating the marks of the dharmacakra, describing of the identity of the Buddha. (c.f., Susan L. Huntington: “Early Buddhist art and the theory of aniconism”, Art Journal, Winter 1990.)
Buddhist art has grown organically within cultures in which the religion flourished, incorporating iconography and styles. Thus, the earliest Buddhist art partakes of symbols and styles from pre-existing Hindu (e.g., yogic postures) and East Roman art (figures set in architraves), with constant reference to the life story of the Buddha. Scholars have sought a cause for the introduction of human figures in Buddhist art around the 1st century BCE from the cultures of the era. Some posit this emergence of anthropomorphic imagery to the lingering influence of Graeco-Roman culture in Gandhara (present-day Pakistan), while others give the credit to the north-central Indian empire of Mathura. These arguments are well-summarized in The Buddha image: its origin and development, Yuvraj Krishan, and see also Karel Werner, p. 68ff. in Venerated Objects and Symbols of Early Buddhism, edited by Peter Harvey.
Iconic phase (1st century CE – present)
Greco-Buddhist head of Buddha, stucco, Hadda Afghanistan, 1st-2nd century C.E.
Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to emerge from the first century C.E. in northern India. During the second to first century B.C.E., sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha’s life and teachings. These took the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the decoration of stupas. The two main centers of creation have been identified as Gandhara in today’s Punjab, in Pakistan, and the region of Mathura, in central northern India.
The art of Gandhara benefited from centuries of interaction with Greek culture since the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.E. and the subsequent establishment of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms, leading to the development of Greco-Buddhist art. Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has been suggested that the concept of the “man-god” was essentially inspired by Greek mythological culture. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.
The art of Mathura tends to be based on a strong Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the later representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat, etc.
Gandhara
Footprint of the Buddha
Mathura and Gandhara also strongly influenced each other. During their artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. It is still a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha was essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara through the Greco-Buddhist syncretism.
Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, first century C.E.
This iconic art was characterized from the start by a realistic idealism, combining realistic human features, proportions, attitudes and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and serenity reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art.
No comments:
Post a Comment